A Statistically Motivated Guide
library(ggplot2) # beautiful graphs
library(ggthemes) # nice themes for ggplot2
library(ggbeeswarm) # helpful 'beeswarm' geometry
library(ggdist) # 'distribution' geometries
library(cowplot) # arrange graphs
Attaching package: 'cowplot'The following object is masked from 'package:ggthemes':
theme_maplibrary(pander) # nice tables
Choosing the right chart to represent your data can be a daunting process. I believe that a starting point for this thinking is some basic statistical thinking about the type of variables that you have. At the broadest level, variables may be conceptualized as categorical variables, or continuous variables.
Once we have discerned the type of variable that have, there are two followup questions we may ask before deciding upon a chart strategy:
Graphs should have clear titles and labels.
The principles of graphing discussed in this document transcend any particular software package, and could be implemented in many different software packages, such as SPSS, SAS, Stata, or R.
The graphs in these particular examples use ggplot2, a graphing library in R. ggplot2 graph syntax can be formidably complex, with a steep learning curve. More information about ggplot can be found here.
Note that ggplot2 can be MUCH simpler than these examples make it look.
For example,
ggplot(mydata, aes(x = x)) + geom_histogram()
will produce a perfectly serviceable histogram.
Much of the complication of the code in this document is simply the result of formatting tweaks to get the graphs EXACTLY the way I wanted them.
Observe also, that for layout purposes, I am reading each ggplot call into an object, e.g.
p1 <- ggplot(mydata, aes(x = x)) + geom_histogram()
so that I can later use plot_grid to lay out the graphs.
In your own work, you do not need to do this, and it may be simpler to simply say:
ggplot(...) + ...
This document uses colors based upon official University of Michigan colors. Using colors that match the design scheme of your organization may be helpful.
# michigan colors
michigan_colors=c("#00274c", # blue
"#ffcb05", # maize
"#a4270b", # tappan red
"#e96300", # ross school orange
"#beb300", # wave field green
"#21c1bc", # taubman teal
"#2878ba", # arboretum blue
"#7207a5") # ann arbor amethyst
# name individual colors
michigan_blue <- "#00274c"
michigan_maize <- "#ffcb05"
tappan_red <- "#a4270b"
ross_school_orange <- "#e96300"
wave_field_green <- "#beb300"
taubman_teal <- "#21c1bc"
arboretum_blue <- "#2878ba"
ann_arbor_amethyst <- "#7207a5"A few randomly selected observations…
| x | y | z | u | v | w | s | q | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 817 | 84.47 | 125.4 | 118.1 | Group B | Group B | Group A | Group 2 | 104.5 |
| 213 | 128.8 | 79.29 | 122.1 | Group B | Group B | Group A | Group 1 | 138.8 |
| 566 | 89.42 | 115.4 | 57.63 | Group A | Group A | Group A | Group 2 | 109.4 |
| 93 | 88.85 | 101.3 | 117.3 | Group A | Group A | Group A | Group 3 | 118.9 |
| 662 | 104.5 | 87.58 | 103 | Group A | Group A | Group A | Group 3 | 134.5 |
| 936 | 95.42 | 88.3 | 127.1 | Group B | Group B | Group A | Group 3 | 125.4 |
| 807 | 205.9 | 118.8 | 127.9 | Group B | Group B | Group B | Group 2 | 225.9 |
| 395 | 102.7 | 102.3 | 94.41 | Group A | Group B | Group A | Group 2 | 122.7 |
| 132 | 128 | 113.2 | 99.98 | Group B | Group B | Group A | Group 2 | 148 |
| 222 | 110.1 | 115.7 | 77.83 | Group B | Group B | Group A | Group 3 | 140.1 |
my_histogram <- ggplot(mydata, aes(x = x)) +
geom_histogram(fill = arboretum_blue) +
ggtitle("histogram") +
xlab("continuous") + ylab("count") +
theme_minimal()
my_facet_histogram <- ggplot(mydata, aes(x = x)) +
geom_histogram(fill = arboretum_blue) +
facet_wrap(~w, nrow = 2) +
ggtitle("histogram by group") +
xlab("continuous") + ylab("count") +
theme_minimal() +
theme(axis.text = element_text(size = 5)) # small font size for axis
plot_grid(my_histogram, my_facet_histogram, ncol=2)
my_density <- ggplot(mydata, aes(x = y)) +
geom_density(fill = michigan_maize) +
ggtitle("density") +
xlab("continuous") + ylab("density") +
theme_minimal()
my_facet_density <- ggplot(mydata, aes(x = y)) +
geom_density(fill = michigan_maize) +
facet_wrap(~w, nrow = 2) +
ggtitle("density by group") +
xlab("continuous") + ylab("density") +
theme_minimal() +
theme(axis.text = element_text(size = 5)) # small font size for axis
plot_grid(my_density, my_facet_density, ncol = 2)
my_m_barchart <- ggplot(mydata,
aes(x = 1,
y = q,
fill = factor(1))) +
stat_summary(fun = mean, geom = "bar") +
scale_fill_manual(values = c(arboretum_blue)) +
ggtitle("barchart of mean") +
guides(fill=FALSE) +
xlab(" ") +
ylab("mean of continuous") +
theme_minimal() +
theme(axis.text.x = element_blank()) +
theme(axis.ticks.x = element_blank())Warning: The `<scale>` argument of `guides()` cannot be `FALSE`. Use "none" instead as
of ggplot2 3.3.4.my_facet_m_barchart <- ggplot(mydata,
aes(x = factor(s),
y = q,
fill = s)) +
stat_summary(fun = mean, geom = "bar") +
scale_fill_manual(values = c(arboretum_blue,
taubman_teal,
michigan_blue,
michigan_maize)) +
ggtitle("barchart of mean \nby group") +
guides(fill=FALSE) +
xlab("categorical") + ylab("mean of continuous") +
theme_minimal()
plot_grid(my_m_barchart,
my_facet_m_barchart,
ncol = 2)
my_horiz_m_barchart <- ggplot(mydata,
aes(x = 1,
y = q,
fill = factor(1))) +
stat_summary(fun = mean,
geom = "bar") +
coord_flip() +
scale_fill_manual(values = c(arboretum_blue)) +
ggtitle("horizontal barchart of mean") +
guides(fill=FALSE) +
xlab(" ") +
ylab("mean of continuous") +
theme_minimal() +
theme(axis.text.y = element_blank()) +
theme(axis.ticks.y = element_blank())
my_facet_horiz_m_barchart <- ggplot(mydata,
aes(x = factor(s),
y = q,
fill = s)) +
stat_summary(fun = mean,
geom = "bar") +
coord_flip() +
scale_fill_manual(values = c(arboretum_blue,
taubman_teal,
michigan_blue,
michigan_maize)) +
ggtitle("horizontal barchart of mean \nby group") +
guides(fill=FALSE) +
xlab(" ") + ylab("mean of continuous") +
theme_minimal() +
theme(axis.text.y = element_blank()) +
theme(axis.ticks.y = element_blank())
plot_grid(my_horiz_m_barchart,
my_facet_horiz_m_barchart)
my_horiz_m_dotchart <- ggplot(mydata,
aes(x = 1,
y = q,
fill = factor(1))) +
stat_summary(fun = mean,
geom = "point", size = 5) +
coord_flip() +
scale_color_manual(values = c(arboretum_blue)) +
ggtitle("horizontal dotchart of mean") +
guides(fill = FALSE) +
xlab(" ") +
ylab("mean of continuous") +
theme_minimal() +
theme(axis.text.y = element_blank(),
axis.ticks.y = element_blank())
my_facet_horiz_m_dotchart <- ggplot(mydata,
aes(x = factor(s),
y = q,
color = s)) +
stat_summary(fun = mean,
geom = "point",
size = 5) +
coord_flip() +
scale_color_manual(name = "group",
values = c(arboretum_blue,
taubman_teal,
michigan_blue,
michigan_maize)) +
ggtitle("horizontal dotchart of mean \nby group") +
guides(fill=FALSE) +
xlab(" ") +
ylab("mean of continuous") +
theme_minimal() +
theme(axis.title.y = element_blank(),
axis.ticks = element_blank())
plot_grid(my_horiz_m_dotchart,
my_facet_horiz_m_dotchart)
my_horiz_m_lollipop_chart <- ggplot(mydata,
aes(x = 1,
y = q,
fill = factor(1))) +
stat_summary(fun = mean,
geom = "point",
size = 5) +
geom_segment(aes(x = 1,
xend = 1,
y = 0,
yend = mean(q))) +
coord_flip() +
scale_color_manual(values = c(arboretum_blue)) +
ggtitle("horizontal lollipop chart of mean") +
guides(fill = FALSE) +
xlab(" ") + ylab("mean of continuous") +
theme_minimal() +
theme(axis.text.y = element_blank(),
axis.ticks.y = element_blank())
my_facet_horiz_m_lollipop_chart <- ggplot(mydata,
aes(x = factor(s),
y = q,
color = s)) +
stat_summary(fun = mean,
geom = "point",
size = 5) +
geom_segment(aes(x = factor(s),
xend = factor(s),
y = 0,
yend = mean(q))) +
coord_flip() +
scale_color_manual(name = "group",
values = c(arboretum_blue,
taubman_teal,
michigan_blue,
michigan_maize)) +
ggtitle("horizontal lollipop chart of mean \nby group") +
guides(fill=FALSE) +
xlab(" ") +
ylab("mean of continuous") +
theme_minimal() +
theme(axis.title.y = element_blank(),
axis.ticks = element_blank())
plot_grid(my_horiz_m_lollipop_chart,
my_facet_horiz_m_lollipop_chart)Warning in geom_segment(aes(x = 1, xend = 1, y = 0, yend = mean(q))): All aesthetics have length 1, but the data has 1000 rows.
ℹ Please consider using `annotate()` or provide this layer with data containing
a single row.
my_m_linechart <- ggplot(mydata,
aes(x = factor(s),
y = mean(q),
group = 1)) +
stat_summary(fun = mean,
geom = "line",
size = 2,
color = arboretum_blue) +
geom_blank() +
ggtitle("linechart of mean") +
xlab(" ") +
ylab("mean of continuous") +
theme_minimal() +
theme(axis.text.x = element_blank()) +
theme(axis.ticks.x = element_blank())Warning: Using `size` aesthetic for lines was deprecated in ggplot2 3.4.0.
ℹ Please use `linewidth` instead.my_facet_m_linechart <- ggplot(mydata,
aes(x = factor(s),
y = q,
group = 1)) +
stat_summary(fun = mean,
geom = "line",
size = 2,
color = arboretum_blue) +
ggtitle("linechart of mean \nby group") +
xlab(" ") +
ylab("mean of continuous") +
theme_minimal()
plot_grid(my_m_linechart, my_facet_m_linechart)
my_violin <- ggplot(mydata,
aes(x = 1,
y = y)) +
geom_violin(fill = ross_school_orange) +
ggtitle("violin plot") +
xlab(" ") +
ylab("continuous") +
theme_minimal() +
theme(axis.text.x = element_blank()) +
theme(axis.ticks.x = element_blank())
my_facet_violin <- ggplot(mydata,
aes(x = 1,
y = y)) +
geom_violin(fill = ross_school_orange) +
facet_wrap(~w,
ncol = 2) +
ggtitle("violin plot \nby group") +
xlab("categorical") +
ylab("continuous") +
theme_minimal() +
theme(axis.text.x = element_blank()) +
theme(axis.ticks.x = element_blank())
plot_grid(my_violin, my_facet_violin, ncol = 2)
my_boxplot <- ggplot(mydata,
aes(x = 2,
y = y)) +
geom_boxplot(colour=tappan_red) +
scale_x_discrete(limit = c(0,1,2)) +
ggtitle("boxplot") +
xlab(" ") +
ylab("continuous") +
theme_minimal() +
theme(axis.text.x = element_blank()) +
theme(axis.ticks.x = element_blank())Warning in scale_x_discrete(limit = c(0, 1, 2)): Continuous limits supplied to discrete scale.
ℹ Did you mean `limits = factor(...)` or `scale_*_continuous()`?my_conditional_boxplot <- ggplot(mydata,
aes(x = w,
y = y)) +
geom_boxplot(colour=tappan_red, width = .5) +
ggtitle("boxplot \nby group") +
xlab("categorical") +
ylab("continuous") +
theme_minimal()
plot_grid(my_boxplot, my_conditional_boxplot, ncol = 2)
library(ggbeeswarm) # beeswarm geometry
my_beeswarm <- ggplot(mydata,
aes(x = y,
y = 1)) +
geom_beeswarm(colour = ann_arbor_amethyst,
groupOnX = FALSE) +
ggtitle("beeswarm plot") +
xlab("continuous") +
ylab("") +
theme_minimal() +
theme(axis.text=element_text(size = 5),
axis.text.y = element_blank()) Warning: The `groupOnX` argument of `geom_beeswarm()` is deprecated as of ggbeeswarm
0.7.1.
ℹ ggplot2 now handles this case automatically.my_facet_beeswarm <- ggplot(mydata,
aes(x = y,
y = 1)) +
geom_beeswarm(colour = ann_arbor_amethyst,
groupOnX = FALSE) +
facet_wrap(~w, nrow = 2) +
ggtitle("beeswarm plot \nby group") +
xlab("continuous") +
ylab("") +
theme_minimal() +
theme(axis.text.x = element_text(size = 5),
axis.text.y = element_blank())
plot_grid(my_beeswarm, my_facet_beeswarm)
library(ggdist) # 'distribution' geometries
my_dotplot <- ggplot(mydata,
aes(x = y)) +
stat_dots(colour=wave_field_green) +
ggtitle("dotplot") +
xlab("continuous") +
ylab("density") +
theme_minimal()
my_facet_dotplot <- ggplot(mydata,
aes(x = y)) +
stat_dots(colour=wave_field_green) +
facet_wrap(~w, nrow = 2) +
ggtitle("dotplot \nby group") +
xlab("continuous") +
ylab("density") +
theme_minimal() +
theme(axis.text = element_text(size = 5)) # small font size for axis
plot_grid(my_dotplot, my_facet_dotplot, ncol = 2)
my_barchart <- ggplot(mydata,
aes(s,
fill = s)) +
geom_bar(width = 1.0) +
scale_fill_manual(values = c(arboretum_blue,
taubman_teal,
michigan_blue,
michigan_maize)) +
ggtitle("bar chart") +
guides(fill=FALSE) +
xlab("categorical") +
ylab("count") +
theme_minimal()
my_facet_barchart <- ggplot(mydata,
aes(s,
fill = s)) +
geom_bar(width = 1.0) +
facet_wrap(~u, ncol = 2) +
scale_fill_manual(values = c(arboretum_blue,
taubman_teal,
michigan_blue,
michigan_maize)) +
ggtitle("bar chart \nby group") +
guides(fill=FALSE) +
xlab("categorical") + ylab("count") +
theme_minimal() +
theme(axis.text.x = element_text(size = rel(.6)))
plot_grid(my_barchart, my_facet_barchart, ncol = 2)
my_horiz_barchat <- ggplot(mydata, aes(s, fill = s)) +
geom_bar(width = 1.0) +
coord_flip() +
scale_fill_manual(values = c(arboretum_blue,
taubman_teal,
michigan_blue,
michigan_maize)) +
ggtitle("horizontal bar chart") +
guides(fill=FALSE) +
xlab("categorical") +
ylab("count") +
theme_minimal()
my_horiz_facet_barchart <- ggplot(mydata, aes(s, fill = s)) +
geom_bar(width = 1.0) +
facet_wrap(~u, ncol = 1) +
coord_flip() +
scale_fill_manual(values = c(arboretum_blue,
taubman_teal,
michigan_blue,
michigan_maize)) +
ggtitle("horizontal bar chart \nby group") +
guides(fill=FALSE) +
xlab("categorical") +
ylab("count") +
theme_minimal() +
theme(axis.text.y = element_text(size = rel(.5)))
plot_grid(my_horiz_barchat, my_horiz_facet_barchart, ncol = 2)
my_pie <- ggplot(mydata, aes(x = 1, fill = v)) +
geom_bar(width = 1) +
coord_polar(theta="y") +
scale_fill_manual(values = michigan_colors) +
ggtitle("pie chart") + guides(fill=FALSE) +
xlab(" ") +
ylab("categorical") +
theme_void() +
theme(axis.text.x = element_blank()) +
theme(axis.text.y = element_blank()) +
theme(axis.ticks = element_blank())
my_facet_pie <- ggplot(mydata, aes(x = 1, fill = v)) +
geom_bar(width = 1, position = "fill") +
coord_polar(theta="y") +
facet_wrap(~u, ncol = 2) +
scale_fill_manual(values = michigan_colors) +
ggtitle("pie chart \nby group") +
guides(fill=FALSE) +
xlab(" ") +
ylab("categorical") +
theme_void() +
theme(axis.text.x = element_blank()) +
theme(axis.text.y = element_blank()) +
theme(axis.ticks = element_blank())
plot_grid(my_pie, my_facet_pie, ncol = 2)
my_doughnut <- ggplot(mydata, aes(x = 2, fill = v)) +
geom_bar() +
coord_polar(theta="y") +
scale_fill_manual(values = michigan_colors) +
ggtitle("doughnut chart") +
guides(fill=FALSE) +
xlab(" ") +
ylab("categorical") +
xlim(.5, 2.5) +
theme_void() +
theme(axis.text.x = element_blank()) +
theme(axis.text.y = element_blank()) +
theme(axis.ticks = element_blank())
my_facet_doughnut <- ggplot(mydata, aes(x = 2, fill = v)) +
geom_bar(position = "fill") +
coord_polar(theta="y") +
facet_wrap(~u, ncol = 2) +
scale_fill_manual(values = michigan_colors) +
ggtitle("doughnut chart \nby group") +
guides(fill=FALSE) +
xlab(" ") +
ylab("categorical") +
xlim(.5, 2.5) +
theme_void() +
theme(axis.text.x = element_blank()) +
theme(axis.text.y = element_blank()) +
theme(axis.ticks = element_blank())
plot_grid(my_doughnut, my_facet_doughnut, ncol = 2)
my_scatterplot <- ggplot(mydata, aes(x=x, y=y)) +
geom_point(colour = ann_arbor_amethyst) +
ggtitle("scatterplot") +
xlab("continuous") +
ylab("continuous") +
theme_minimal() +
theme(axis.text.x = element_blank()) +
theme(axis.text.y = element_blank()) +
theme(axis.ticks = element_blank())
my_scatterplot_smoother <- ggplot(mydata, aes(x=x, y=y)) +
geom_point(colour = ann_arbor_amethyst) +
geom_smooth(method = lm, color = michigan_maize, size = 2) +
ggtitle("scatterplot with fit line") +
xlab("continuous") +
ylab("continuous") +
theme_minimal() +
theme(axis.text.x = element_blank()) +
theme(axis.text.y = element_blank()) +
theme(axis.ticks = element_blank())
plot_grid(my_scatterplot, my_scatterplot_smoother)`geom_smooth()` using formula = 'y ~ x'
my_hexagon <- ggplot(mydata, aes(x=x, y=y)) +
geom_hex() +
ggtitle("hexagon plot") +
xlab("continuous") +
ylab("continuous") +
theme_minimal() +
theme(legend.text = element_text(size=4),
legend.key.size = unit(.25, "cm")) +
theme(axis.text.x = element_blank()) +
theme(axis.text.y = element_blank()) +
theme(axis.ticks = element_blank()) +
scale_fill_gradient(low = taubman_teal,
high = arboretum_blue)
my_smoother <- ggplot(mydata, aes(x=x, y=y)) +
geom_point(colour = ann_arbor_amethyst) +
geom_smooth(se=TRUE, color=michigan_maize, size=2) +
ggtitle("scatterplot with smoother") +
xlab("continuous") +
ylab("continuous") +
theme_minimal() +
theme(axis.text.x = element_blank()) +
theme(axis.text.y = element_blank()) +
theme(axis.ticks = element_blank())
plot_grid(my_hexagon, my_smoother)Warning: Computation failed in `stat_binhex()`.
Caused by error in `compute_group()`:
! The package "hexbin" is required for `stat_bin_hex()`.`geom_smooth()` using method = 'gam' and formula = 'y ~ s(x, bs = "cs")'
my_area <- ggplot(mydata, aes(x=x, y=y)) +
geom_area(position = "stack", fill = ross_school_orange) +
ggtitle("area plot") +
xlab("continuous") +
ylab("continuous") +
theme_minimal() +
theme(axis.text.x = element_blank()) +
theme(axis.text.y = element_blank()) +
theme(axis.ticks = element_blank())
my_contour <- ggplot(mydata, aes(x=x, y=y)) +
stat_density_2d(aes(fill = ..level..),
geom = "polygon") +
ggtitle("contour plot") +
xlab("continuous") +
ylab("continuous") +
theme_minimal() +
theme(axis.text.x = element_blank()) +
theme(axis.text.y = element_blank()) +
theme(axis.ticks = element_blank()) +
scale_fill_gradient(low = taubman_teal,
high = arboretum_blue)
plot_grid(my_area, my_contour)Warning: The dot-dot notation (`..level..`) was deprecated in ggplot2 3.4.0.
ℹ Please use `after_stat(level)` instead.
`stat_bin()` using `bins = 30`. Pick better value with `binwidth`.
`stat_bin()` using `bins = 30`. Pick better value with `binwidth`.
`geom_smooth()` using formula = 'y ~ x'
`geom_smooth()` using method = 'gam' and formula = 'y ~ s(x, bs = "cs")'
`stat_bin()` using `bins = 30`. Pick better value with `binwidth`.
`geom_smooth()` using formula = 'y ~ x'
`stat_bin()` using `bins = 30`. Pick better value with `binwidth`.
`geom_smooth()` using formula = 'y ~ x'Graphics made with the ggplot2 graphing library created by Hadley Wickham.
Available online at https://agrogan1.github.io/
How to Choose a Chart by Andrew Grogan-Kaylor is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. You are welcome to download and use this handout in your own classes, or work, as long as the handout remains properly attributed.
Last updated: March 30 2026 at 13:00